World Book Heritage. 15. The medieval manuscript.
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the history of the written word
15. Medieval manuscripts
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Illuminated manuscripts. The medieval manuscript contains two types of decoration: ornaments (borders and initials) and illustrations proper. The term miniature comes from the use of minium, red oxide of lead.
The classical tradition.
Illustrations on scrolls survive rarely, but some continuous scenes are known, for example the Peutinger map, a method retained in later copies. Cyces grew up for the Iliad and other works and became archetypes for later illustrations. Individual important scenes were selected and isolated, a process hastened by the introduction of the codex. The earliest illustrations are often scientific, for example mathematical diagrams.
Ambrosian Iliad. This 4th century fragment shows the Greek manuscript at a high stage of development. 58 illustrations on vellum survive from an original 240 illustrations on 386 leaves. Pictures are on the verso of the leaves and of various heights surrounded by a frame line in red and blue which adds depth. The style is naturalistic and probably based on earlier eastern Greek originals and there are some anachronisms, for example horsemen depicted out of the original context. The illustrationsare simple and direct with landscape background only in two pictures. The leaves were saved for their pictures by a 15th century collector who covered the uncial text on the verso with paper. The standards vary and most pictures are stained and worn. There are few other early Greek secular manuscripts but several illustraed commentaries on religious and secular texts.
Vatican Vergil. This is the earliest surviving Latin illustrated codex, like the Iliad 4th century. It provied evidence of a well-developed tradition. There are 76 leaves 13x12 inches. The text is badly damaged, porhaps a fifth of the original. It includes fragments of the Aeniad and the Georgics with 50 illustraions surrounded by frames, usually on the upper part of th page. The quality varies but there are deep rich colurs and there is little evidence of preliminary drawing. Three to four artists were probably involved, displaying a pure classical style with good proprtions, pose and grace as well as a sense of space. The aniamals are naturalistic and there is a bird's eye perspective. The artists were probably following earlier models.
Roman Vergil. This is also in the Vatican Library. It consists of 309 leaves 13 nches square with 19 miniatures, 12 of them full page. Thay follow the same scheme as the Vatican Vergil but are less elegant. Perhaps they are following a dead tradition and are pronbaly as lte as the 6th century, despite the style of the rustic capitals. The style is crude and it may be the work of a provincial artist. The portrait of Vergil is the only survivor of a strong tradition of portraits attested by Pliny and others.
Characteristics of the classical codex. The classical book is characterised by its simplicity, its directness and its naturalism.
Later copies of classic books. These are a major source of the study of Greek or Roman illustrations. The style was conservative but allowances have to de made for such things as changing costume. They include works of literature Terence, Ovid Vergil. Biblical manuscripts include the Joshua Roll in the Vatican probably a 10th century copy of a fifth century Alexandrian original with drawings of the deeds of Joshua in a continuous style. They are in bown ink, tinted, and full of movement with some perspective. The soldiers have second century dress. Sciences are represented by the Discorides herbal and editions of Ptolemy - 52 Byzantine manuscripts are known 16 of them with maps. Also the Peutinger table, an extended road map of the Empire seven meters in length, stretching from Britain to the Ganges.
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Early west Christian tradition. This is known only from fragments such as a fourth century fragment of the Old Testament originating from North Italy. It adopts the clear, simple, natural style of secular works and is very like the Vatican Vergil but with some preliminary drawing.
Byzantine style. This is the art of imperial Constantinople. It was not purely derived from the Roman classical tradition. There is also Christian influence. There ar four main sources:
1. Hellenistic art centred on Byzantium, a calm naturalistic style with delicate colouring.
2. Syrian arts. Thisentres on Antioch and is livelier and more dramatic; more primitive in style, colour and decoration.
3. Monumental and liturgical elements. These show the influence of the mosaic, rendering spiritual values in line and colour. It aims at dignity and so is a very formal style, showing arrested action not violent movement and perhaps has a tendency to monotony.
4. Persian influence comes in from the 10th century employing natural objects as elements in the design.
Chrysography or gold writing reflects the splendour of the Byzantine Court. It forms an important basis for medieval illumination and is written in gold and silver on purple vellum. It was early imitated in the west, for example in Charlemagne's court. It was mainly used for the scriptures and its extravagance was condemned by Saint Jerome. Later all gold backgrounds were used.
Various periods can be identified for the Byzantine style
1. Formative period in the fourth and fifth centuries. This has a somewhat fluid style which shows the old pagan influence adapted to Christianity but little of this survives.
2.The first golden age in the sixth century. This produced luxutios manuscripts such as the Cotton Genesis in the British Library, badly damaged by fire this is in the classicalstyle with richly coloured backgrounds. The Vienna Genesis is on purple vellum with 48 illustrations in watercolour. This has a stiff style aiming at narration rather than beauty. There is a continuous technique in the classical style with some Hellenistic personifications such as nymphs.
3. A period of decadence in the seventh to ninth centuries. This was a period of war, and also of the iconoclasts between 717 and 843 when no images were allowed.
4. The second golden age during the 10th to 12th centuries. This a neoclassical period with many copies of lost classical originals such as the Joshua roll. There was a new oriental influence at this time with entwined foliage patterns reminiscent of Persian carpets, headpieces which were purely decorative, large gold initials with decorative backgrounds. Gospels are the most common products of this period. The main centre was Constantinople but there were provincial centres for example in Mount Athos. The Byzantine style forms a bridge between the classical art of Western Europe which was larely destroyed by the barbarians and the medieval art of Western Europe. It had a continuing influence on the various movements and settled the iconography that was used.
Pre-Romanesque. [to expand]
Lombardic and Frankish. In the seventh and eighth centuries these manuscripts were quite different from the Byzantine style with little figurative representation. Decoration was limited to initials, the product of the calligrapher not the painter. It probably originated in Northern Italy as a revolt against the simplicity of texts in the late classical era. The most elaborate manuscripts were from Northern France in the late eighth century after the Hibern-Saxon style had developed. It is characterised by elaborate pen work initials with zoomorphic ornamentation.
Hiberno-Saxon. In the seventh to ninth centuries this style flourished in the British Isles. Its source was in the celtic patterns of curves, spirals and zigzags found on metal and other artefacts. The relationship between the English and Irish elements is arguable, as is the origin of he early manuscripts. Lindisfarne was established in 635 by Aidan from Iona, so early links were close. Later development in England was determined by closer links with the Roman church. The style is characterised intricate patterns of interlacings, often including animal forms. From a distance it appears as a unified pattern but closer examination reveals minute detail. There is no regard for realism; the effect is ornamental, not representational. Plant motifs are rare and the animals are often distorted to fit into the patterns. There are also arrangements of dots in the patterns which are very accurately worked. Historical scenes, human figures, trees and flowers appear rarely and then the execution is poor and it can be difficult to ascertain what the plaited forms represent. The style culminates in what are known as the carpet pages – complete pages of complex designs which often precede the gospels. A single elaborate initial can take up a whole page. Colouring is normally more subdued than the Byzantine manuscripts.
The Book of Durrow is the earliest extant illuminated codex. Now in Trinity College, Dublin, it originated in the seventh century. The four evangelists are grotesque and unreal but the ornamentation is magnificent, varying from page to page with a bold, simple rhythm. Only four main colours are used.
The Lindisfarne Gospels written around 700 and now in the British Library form a codex of 258 leaves. Pages show the four evangelists, five crosses and a wealth of figures, including birds. The designs are simpler and more orderly than the Irish codices, perhaps betraying some Byzantine influence. The figures of the evangelists certainly show Saxon and continental influence. The use of dotting lightens the general effect, but some see a bewildering, almost barbaric over-elaboration.
The Book of Kells dating fro around 800 is the finest example of this school of illumination. The intricate knotwork has been described as "traced by angels". The volume contains 2,100 initials, with ample spacing, generous margins and a forest of unrestrained patterns with capital letters formed from distorted animal and human figures. There are also elaborate crosses, portraits of the evangelists and large initials filled in with patternwork on a black background, showing the influence of metalwork. The Chi-rho initial is the most elaborate. The text however has been found to be careless.
The Canterbury school was based in the first scriptorium to be established in southern England under the influence of Saint Augustine's mission of 597. It is characterised by a mixture of Irish and continental influence, using columned frames with arches and leaf patterns. The Canterbury Psalter, completed about 750 includes a portrait of David enthroned and has Anglo-Irish motifs in its decoration.
The Mercian school was established at Lichfield during the reign of Offa (755-794). It has been described as being more barbarous in style than the Canterbury school but the carpet page of the Lichfield Gospels is an intricate design showing a Saxon style cross with elaborate scrollwork.
The Viking raids and Danish invasion brought in a period of decline. Alfred the Great revived learning but not the art of illumination.
The Carolingian revival was initiated in the late eighth century by Charlemagne who deliberately set out to build a Christian civilisation. Aachen was to be a second Rome. Men like Alcuin of York were invited to his court in 781. Most of the early works were religious. The main sources for the style were:
1. Merovingian and Lombardic zoomorphic ornamental penwork.
2. Anglo-Irish decorative motifs, especially evident in the Tours Gospel of about 800.
3. Eastern Europe for the human figure, although this is rare except for the evangelists, perhaps the influence of the iconoclasts.
There are various schools, although the classification is very fluid.
Trier was the scriptorium for the most precious codices, often written in gold on purple vellum on the orders of Charlemagne and his family. There was a strong Byzantine influence, shown for example in the Ada Gospels, paid for by Charlemagne's sister the abbess Ada. The Godescalc Evangelium was written in Mainz between 781 and 783 to commemorate Charlemagne's visit to Rome and is the earliest Carolingian codex. It is written in gold on purple in uncial script, except for the dedication which uses Carolingian minuscule script. The volume contains six miniatures, including the evangelists.
Aachen housed the Scola Palatina whose manuscripts included more illustration and less decoration. It had an influence on the Rheims school, established by Ebbo, Archbishop of Rheims between 816 and 841, who had previously been at Aachen. The Utreecht Psalter is attributed to the school of Rheims. The drawings were not elaborate but quickly sketched and agitated in style. It may have been copied from an earlier poor manuscript as the text shows signs of carelessness. The drawings were very influential, being copied in Canterbury in about 1,000.
There were other schools in Tours, Metz and Corbie but the main impetus was lost with the split of the empire and external pressures.
The Ottonian Renaissance takes its name from the tenth century emperors Otto I and II. In 963 Greek artists were brought over and in 972 Otto II married Theophano, a Byzantine princess. The tenth century was an age of gifted women including Princess Hedwig, who taught Greek. The ornamentation of the Ottonian school was limited with plain backgrounds in gold or purple, with some decorative patters but there was a reintroduction of human representation in a reaction to iconoclasm. There was little attempt at perspective but the technique was well refined, aiming at a calm monumentality, with little inventiveness and a tendency to stereotyped images.
The Winchester school was a renaissance starting at the end of the tenth century under Saint Dunstan and Saint Athelwold, bishop of Winchester. It showed Carolingian influence but was freer in style. There were centres in Ely, Canterbury, York and Durham. Its most notable work is the Benedictional of Saint Athelwold written about 975 by the scribe Godeman and now at Chatsworth. It shows the clear influence of the Rheims school, particularly the Utrecht Psalter, which is responsible for some of its excesses. It has luxuriant foliage in its acanthus borders, the necks of the figures are long and curved, their draperies moved by the wind end in fluttering points. It often dispenses with colour, the drawings are sketch-like and tinted. They are full of life and humour but their mannerisms (Anglo-Saxon attitudes?) are distorted, their legs spindly. This insular style survived into the 12th century and even had some influence in France.
The Romanesque is an ecclesiastical style, born of an age of religious fervour. The crusades were initiated, western monasticism was at its peak, the clerics were very versatile, some of them active as architects as well as illuminators. Illumination was concentrated into the large-scale production of massive Bibles, psalters and gospels. The style began to form around 1,000 and by 1,100, with the building of the monastery at Cluny it transformed into the high Romanesque. It was a common stylistic trend in Europe though with regional variations.
The chief influences were the later Anglo-Saxon and Ottonian manuscripts, and also Byzantine elements through the crusades. It is characterised by elaborate initials which incorporated illustrations as vehicles for didacticism. There were also grotesque features, monsters and interlaced ribbons. The illustrator abandoned the illusionist manner of late antiquity and was not an imitation of nature. The figures were conceived in linear terms to fit an overall design. There was some distortion but the aim was at dignity and monumentality. Backgrounds were ornamental with some use of gold, reflecting the Byzantine influence.
The Anglo-Norman school was of outstanding quality. Both side of the Channel were closely linked. Bishops often commissioned manuscripts from Normandy. Durham received almost 50 manuscripts and a large number found their way to Exeter Cathedral Library. The main products were monumental services books with initials enlivened by dragons or foliage, but the works of church fathers are also represented. There were several main centres:
Saint Albans produced a fine Psalter between 1119 and 1146, with 45 initials and 200 initials showing a clear Byzantine influence (it was purchased for 2s 6d in the early 19th century).
Bury manuscripts have interesting initials though the figure style is poor with long noses and receding chins, prominent eyes and flat chests.
Winchester was no longer the only main centre, although the arts were encouraged by Henry of Blois, Bishop of Winchester in the later 12th century. He visited Rome several times , bringing back works of art. There is a Psalter associated with Henry in the British Library but the main work is the Winchester Bible, produced about 1160 by five artists, two of them showing a strong Byzantine influence. It contains fine figure drawing and initials.
Canterbury produced two copies of the Utrecht Psalter and many other wrks.
Durham is known for two main works: a Life of Saint Cuthbert and the Bible of Hugh Puiset, bishop from 1153 to 1195. This is a grand production in four large volumes containing initials with figurative subjects.
Psalters were the most frequently copied book – a fine example is the Westminster Psalter – but other subjects were also covered, for example bestiaries.
In France there was a strong Mozarabic influence in the south while in the north the work of Norman scriptoria is difficult to distinguish from English workmanship. There was also the influence of the Cistercian order, puritanical under the influence of Saint Bernard of Clairvaux (died 1153).
Gothic. [to expand]
France. [to expand]
England. [to expand]
Italy. [to expand]
Bohemia. [to expand]
International gothic. [to expand]
Renaissance. [to expand]
The medieval book. Materials and characteristics. [to expand]
Manuscript hands. [to expand]
Liturgical manuscripts in which illustrations are found. [to expand]
Medieval book. Production and trade. [to expand]
Manuscript production, scriptoria. [to expand]
The church. [to expand]
Scriptoria. [to expand]
Independent scribes. [to expand]
Brothers of the Common Life. [to expand]
Scribal shops. [to expand]
Universities. [to expand]
Libraries. [to expand]
Literacy. [to expand]
Manuscript trade and the invention of printing. [to expand]
This page updated 16 September 2020.
