World Book Heritage. 17. Paper.

World Book heritage A series of talks on the history of the written word 17. Paper.

Pre-paper
In China to C3BCE writing was with a bamboo pen using soot on wood or bamboo cut into strips. Then writing brush invented and silk began to be used but expensive. Wood heavy - one emperor had to go through 120 lb of state papers each day. About 100BCE lampblack was introduced for ink and fibres of raw silk used to write on.

Invention
105. Attributed to Cai Lun 105CE. Probably experiments befre this but this is the date it was officially reported. Pen Yeh in the official history of the Han dynasty written C5: “In ancient times writing was generally on pieces of bamboo and silk … but silk being expensive and bamboo heavy these two materials were not convenient. Then Cai Lun thought of using tree bark, hemp rags and fish net. In the first year of the Yuan Hsing period (105CE) he made a report to the Emperor and received high praise for his ability.” Cai Lun a eunuch. Man of talent and zeal appointed private counsellor by Emperor Ho Ti on accession 89CE. Ennobled and paper called “paper of Marquis Cai”. In 121 implicated in palace intrigue. Rather than face humiliation he “went home, took a bath, combed his hair and drank poison”. Later temple erected, paper makers still burn incense before his portrait. Paper soon used instead of copper coins for placing in tombs.

98. In March 1931 Folke Bergman, Swedish archaeologist found piece of paper in Han ruin near the Kharakoto. Among 78 wood mss latest date 24 Feb 98CE. Hoard probably hidden soon after. Early materials bark, hemp (from nets etc) plant fibres, rags. Scholar writes 142CE “I send you the works of philosopher Hsu in ten volumes. Unable to afford silk I am obliged to send you a copy on paper”.

137. In 1907 Sir Aurel Stein found paper documents in sealed dustbin of watch tower on Great Wall near Hun Huang in Sinkiang (Chinese Turkestan). Date 150-250CE. Many mss on wood and silk also nine letters written on paper. None dated but latest date on documents 137CE. One letter in BM on pure rag paper.

250. More finds by Sir Aurel Stein at Niya dating 250-300CE.

264. earliest clearly dated paper found in Loulan by Sven Hedin

399. earliest dated paper at Turfan found by Dr Grünevell

406-996. dates of 10,000 rolls all on paper found in single mss chamber in Dunhuang. Included earliest dated printed scroll, the Diamond Sutra (868). By 5th century use of paper general throughout China and Sinkiang. At first considered poor substitute but improvements by Cai Lun’s apprentice Tso Po

C610. papermaking started in Japan, probably imported by Buddhist monk Dokyo from Korea. Made from mulberry bark. Dokyo also ink maker and skilled physician.

674. paper treated with toxic substance to withstand insects (ordered by law)

916. Arab writer Abu Zaid Hasan al Siraff described the use of toilet paper in China.

Spread of paper to the West.
Exact lines of contact uncertain but along silk route used since Roman times. Chinese visited Rome in 166CE and described An Tun (Marcus Aurelius Antonianus). In Middle Ages Arab traders undertook journeys lasting 2-3 years with relays of caravans. Peach, apricot, tea, silk, paper, printing all transmitted east to west. Up to Mongol times 28 agricultural products transmitted E-W and 68 W-E. Also transfer of religious ideas.

6th century. Paper in Gilgit, Kashmir

650. paper imported into Samarkand from China

707. paper used in Mecca by Calif Omar. Chinese paper via Arab silk route. Three religions involved in spread of paper: Buddhist, Nestorian Church and Islam.

8th century. Paper began to be sized. At first gypsum (calcium sulphate, mineral basis of plaster of Paris), later gelatine (from lichen), starch etc. Gelatine from animals first used for sizing in Europe 1337.

751. Battle of River Talas. After settling quarrel of Turkish chieftains of Ferghana and Tashkent China proclaimed sovereignty over bother their territories. Arab governor of Khorasan objected and declared war against china. “A bloody battle was fought on the banks of the River Talas. It finished with the rout of the infidel who having left on the field of combat a great number of slain and abandoned a great many prisoners, were pursued by the victors as far as the frontiers of china and hurled back into that empire.” Battle put an end to Chinese westward expansion. Papermakers captured and put to work in Samarkand. Favourable location: abundant crops of flax, hemp, pure water. Analysis shows mainly raw fibres, some rag. Arab writer of 11th century: “Among the specialities of Samarkand that should be mentioned is paper. It has replaced the rolls of Egyptian papyrus and the parchment which was formerly used for writing because it is more beautiful, more agreeable and more convenient … The manufacture grew and filled not only local demand but also became for the people of Samarkand an important article of commerce. Thus it came to minister to the needs and well being of mankind in all the countries of the earth.”

793. papermaking established in Baghdad, capital of Haroun al Raschid (786-809) of Arabian nights fame. Skilled Chinese recruited.

C800. used in Egypt, probably from Baghdad or Samarkand. Displaces papyrus during 9th century. Late 9th century letter ends: “pardon the papyrus”.

C900. made in Egypt. Favourable location: flax grown, linen woven, mummies raided for strips of linen. Many paper mss 9-14 centuries survive in dry climate. Persian traveller reports use of wrapping paper in Cairo in 1035.

985. produced in Damascus. For long the main supplier to Europe (charta Damascena)

C1000. produced in Tiberias (modern Israel)

C1100. spread across north Africa to Fez (Morocco). By end of 12th century Fez had 400 millstones for papermaking

Paper in Europe
In 12th century imported into Europe via Constantinople and Sicily

1109. oldest extant European paper document: deed of Count Roger of Sicily written in Arabic and Latin.

1129. Ms from Convent of San Cilor has alternate pages of parchment and paper. Possibly imported from Africa or manufactured in Moorish Spain.

1110/1140. Theophilus (thought to be Roger of Helmarshausen, a Benedictine monk) in De diversis artibus gave a clear and practical account of contemporary processes including “Greek parchment which is made from linen rags”. First European mention.

c1151. El Idrisi says of Játiva in Moorish Spain: “a charming town whose castles and strength have become proverbial. Paper is prepared here as nowhere else in the civilised universe and is sent both east and west.” Even after conquest by Aragon (1238?) paper, though an infidel product, received royal protection.

1154. first use in mainland Italy

1228. first use in Germany

1276. first certain mention of a paper mill in Christendom, at Fabriano, Ancona. Paper mill given to monks of monastery of Montefano. Second mill given to them by 1283. Rapid development and with later mills in Bologna, Padua, Genoa able to replace Damascus as source.

1282. first authentic watermark (Fabriano) used as trade mark but often symbolic meaning. Early devices simple - crosses, circles. Later crown (1312), posthorn (1315), foolscap etc, some giving names to sizes of sheets

1309. first use in England

1346. first use in Holland

1348. first recorded paper mill in France (near Troyes, Champagne). Probably established by Obert Todesco of Lombardy, canon of Troyes who had seen mills in Italy. Still active in 1923 making cigarette papers.

1390. first German mill established by Ulman Stromer in Nuremberg. A merchant who had visited Italy and seen mll. Recruited craftsmen from Lombardy, sworn to secrecy to maintain monopoly. Labour troubles in first year, employees hampered work. Ringleaders imprisoned until made vows of obedience. No further trouble to Stromer’s death in 1407. Watermark: S + arms of Nuremberg. Sheet size 30x42cm. Picture of mill in Hartman Schedel’s Liber chronicarum (1493). Two rollers with 18 stampers in all.

1405. mill in Huy, Flanders

Reasons for slow spread.
Parchment more satisfactory than early papers Poor education in Europe. 11th cent library in Cairo had 150,000 vol. European monastery advanced if it had 100. Frowned on by church: Muslim origin. 1220 Frederick II decreed that instruments on paper invalid.

Paper in England

1495 introduction to England. Previously imported from France, often from rags exported from England.

1495. John Tate at Sele Mill Hertford. Son of Lord Mayor. Commemorated in colophon of translation of Bartholomaeus De proprietatibus rerum printed by de Worde c1496: And John Tate the younger, joye mote he broke Which late hath in England do make this paper thin That now in English this book is printed in Also used in de Worde’s Golden legend (1498) etc. Visited by Henry VII 1498 and 1499 according to his household book. Watermark: eight-pointed star in double circle. Though paper good no evidence that mill a success. No evidence of papermaking after 1499. Mill still standing 1507 when Tate in will bequeathed to Thomas Bolls of Hertford: a much white paper as will extend to the sum of 26/6 out of my paper mill at Hertford. Sold after his death.

16th century. little activity in England 1549 Discourse of the common weal of the realm of England says that no paper being made in England because of foreign competition

1566. Thomas Thirlby, Bishop of Ely and noted statesman began mill, probably at Fen Ditton, Cambs with the help of German craftsman Remigius.

1554 or 1569. mill at Bemerton near Salisbury

By 1565. Sir Tomas Gresham set up mill on private estate at Osterley, Middlesex. Not a financial success

1585. Richard Totell, printer of legal and other works petitioned Lord Burlegh for monopoly of paper making in England for 31 years together with a prohibition of rage export. No success. Cheaper to import paper. English wore wool rather than cotton, also much rag exported so home supplies unreliable. France a major source from 15th century onwards, especially Normandy.

1588/9. John Spilman granted a ten year licence by Queen for papermaking and rag collection in England. German from Lindau, Lake Constance, goldsmith to Elizabeth and James I. For some years had had property in Dartford and now established paper mill by converting two mills on the Darent. Mills was already in production in 1588 when described by Thomas Churchyard (c1520-1604) in a glowing 44 stanza poem dedicated to Sir Walter Raleigh: A description and plain discourse of paper and the whole benefits that paper brings. Patent exchanged for another in 1597 renewing his monopoly for 14 years. Very successful. Visited by James I and knighted. Died 1626. Elaborate tomb in Dartford church. Succeeded by son John until his death in 1641. Mill then in other hands. Became powder mill 1732. Watermark: jester with cap and bells survives in term foolscap. Spread of papermaking now inevitable though c1598 Spilman took action against others infringing patent by setting up rival mill in Buckinghamshire. Setbacks due to plagues when rag collecting forbidden.

Imported paper was almost universal in England to 1670s though many mills were founded. Most probably produced low grade and brown paper. The centre of supply shifted in later 17th century from France to Holland. Though Holland itself produced little paper Dutch middlemen controlled important centres. France produced paper with Dutch watermarks ad during 17th century Amsterdam became international centre for distribution of paper. By mid-18th century Dutch made paper considered superior to French even by French printers, largely du to development of Hollander for producing pulp - developed in Holland c1680.

Patents show increase in English activity:

• 1665. Charles Hildeyard for manufacture of blue sugar paper
• 1675. Eustace Barnaby for “art and skill of making all sorts of white paper for the use of writing and printing, being a new manufacture never practised in any of our kingdoms of dominions”
• 1682. George Hagar for method of tub sizing
• 1682. Nathaniel Bladen for first Hollander or rag engine introduced into England

1685. revocation of edict of Nantes. Several Huguenot refugees who were papermakers including: Henri Portal who escaped with brother Guillaume, crossing Channel in empty wine casks. Henri learned papermaking at South Stoneham Mill near Southampton. 1713/4 leased Bere Mill at Whitchurch, Hants, in 1718 second mill at Laverstoke. Successful: granted privilege of supplying paper for bank of England notes, privilege still held by firm in 20th century. Company of White Paper Makers incorporated by royal charter 1686: 14 years monopoly of white printing and writing paper. 1690 statute revised their monopoly to all writing and printing paper over 4s a ream. Own watermark incorporating “Company” 18th century period of growth. 1700 ony 100 small mills, by 1800 400 mills. White paper industry grew protected by tariffs but to 1740 insufficient white paper for printing production. Much, especially better grades had to be imported. By mid-18th century increased supply of rages and quality improved. James Whatman I (1702-59) a leading producer. In 1731 with W.Borookes purchasedTurkey Mill near Maidstone, a former fulling mill producing turkey-red cloth. Completely rebuilt, vats enlarged, soon became premier mill in England. Public offices supplied. 1757 produced first wove paper for Baskerville, first book completely on the paper Paradise regained 1759. Baskerville lso put printed sheets between hot polished copper plates to add gloss - aided by texture of wove paper. James Whatman II (1741098) son, produced paper for Bensley and Bulmer. 1772 Antiquarian paper produced for Society of Antiquaries for large engravings 52.75x31.75 inches (at time largest double elephant 40x26.75 inches). Mechanical lifting device required, vat crew of eleven produced paper at £15 a ream. This size exported, first time ever. By 1785 nearly 80% of fine English paper was produced by Whatman. Firm still noted today as W. & R.Balston Ltd. Thomas Balston author of history of papermaking. Alternative materials:

• 1684 experiments to manufacture paper from asbestos!
• 1719 physicist Réaumur suggested wood after studying life cycle of wasp
• 1765 Jacob Christian Schäffer successfully produced paper from moss, bark, straw, cabbage stalks, and tulips.
• No real progress until Koops in 1800 foreshadowed 19th century developments.

Paper in Devon
1683. first mill in Plymouth operated by Denis Manes 1683.

1703. Paper mill recorded in Uffculme.

1704. Paper mill recorded in Countess Wear, near Exeter.

1710. Milbay.

1750s. Paper mills in Shaugh Prior, Barnstaple, Cullompton, Newton St Cyres.

From 1666 dead had to be buried in woollen to save linen rags for papermaking.
1760 Plymouth sale of paper stuff in surplus port materials: old rigging boltrpope, canvas, hammocks awnings boat coverings etc.
1792 Hamoaze Dockyard sale of white oakum, damaged paper stuff, old rigging etc.

Rags had to be imported as demand grew in 18th century:

1803. cargo of paper stuff arrived at Exmouth from Guernsey.

1806. 11 tons of clean white linen rags arrived in Plymouth from Messina. Devon was also supplied from coastal trade through Exmouth, Plymouth, Brixham, Dartmouth.

1800. Probably arising from wage disputes at the end of the 18th century, the Original Society of Papermakers was founded in 1800 as the trade union for workers in the hand-made paper business, based at Cray in Kent. Early factional disputes and trade pride prevented the Society from expanding into machine-based mills. By 1823 England organised into five Grand Divisions (Devon in no. 3), then into local clubs. Members had to have served seven years apprenticeship before receiving a “card of freedom”. Employers who recognised the OSP designated as “employers of carded labour”. Trampers undertook a Round of 1190 miles in 64 days, presenting their card to the Secretary of the local Lodge on arrival. Tramper received 6d and a bed and the secretary attempted to find him work. If none available had to leave for next lodge. System abolished 1856. Stages for Devon:
Salisbury 44 miles in 2 days, Wells 50 miles in 2 days, Bradninch 10 miles in 1 day, Exeter 60 miles in 3 days, Cheddar 26 miles in 1 day, Bath etc.

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This page last updated 18 September 2020